slave to the blues

The following song may be taken as a specimen:”. In 1925 one of the finest of the early vaudeville-blues singers, Ma Rainey, could record her Slave To The Blues [Paramount 12332] knowing it would still strike a strong emotional chord in her audiences – which could have included ex-slaves by then in their 80s and 90s. It [the train] blowed for the crossroad, Notes to Country Blues L.P. Xtra 1142. Her taloned feet stand atop reclining lions.”(103)   In one interpretation from the Jewish Bible (and the King James version) she is indirectly referred to as a “screech owl.” (104)  Lilith possesses many forms. Subject of this song is Death’s Black Train Is Comin’. It is intriguing that once again in this preliminary survey, Arabian culture appears to be a source for both gospel and blues songs of the African American. North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources] 1992. Not surprisingly, since the Katy’s early arrival in the state, the first blues to include examples of what was essentially a ‘floating verse’ emanated from Texas singers; or ones closely associated with Texas. Milton recording and one other, throughout at least 5,000 pre-war gospel titles listed in B&GR there are none that include the camel. Cannot annotate a non-flat selection. J.M. (126)  The Coffle Song is more than likely a direct precursor of a gospel number  which featured on many early recordings, especially in the 1920s, usually titled Do Lord, Remember Me. knees/When I’m on my bed affliction[sic] This destiny may be avoided by returning to the spot with gifts for the (33). Well, they come at ten Every day at ten o’ clock. Gates must surely have had knowledge of the ancient Arab saying re the black camel of death. If I could break these chains an’ let my worried heart go free. But fortunately, an almost unique recording by guitarists Peg Leg Howell and Henry Williams and fiddler Eddie Anthony surely convey something of what the two enslaved fiddlers, at least might have WANTED to play; even if it was not recognized yet as Blues in 1822. A ritual from the latter “encourages bribing the Sidhe to save lives via the crossroads. He is symbolized as “Number 3 (two legs and a phallus)…In Africa, he is sometimes venerated in the form of a phallus.” (88). I got a woman that I’m loving, boy, but she don’t mean a thing. J.M. Given the oral tradition of the African American since slavery days, the sight of these black camels in the later 19th. kazoo playing since Ben Ramey (of the Memphis Jug Band) in the 1920s, by Bonds himself. They just come, just like cows, you now, comin’ to the children.” .(65). You’ve got to go. I said, trouble. In Tomlin’s second and last session, in March, 1927; he recorded two sides in an Atlanta studio. J.M. (Gen. XXIV:63). The earliest known crossroads in the South that has come down to us is situated in what was known as ‘Indian Territory’ prior to 1907. Milton’s recording. Gonna meet you at the Judgement Bar. Lawdy, do remember me. It's that I'm a slave to the blues, grievin’ 'bout that man of mine. Allen Shaw vo.gtr. Much the same as Henry Thomas would on secular numbers. Ah! (Yes!) an’ cry so over their children, til people just feel sorry for ‘em an’ walk off on ‘em. “A gentleman had purchased twelve negroes [sic] in different parts of Kentucky and was taking them to a farm in the South. Oh! A roebuck being a young adult female deer. I’ll think of you in the cotton fields; Mm. They are the subject of the so-called ‘satanic verses’, …inspiration for Salman Rushdie’s controversial 1988 novel ‘The Satanic Verses’.” (42)   As well as being “a spirit of abundance with dominion over human reproduction…She may have had dominion over trade routes, protecting those who traveled them.” (43)   One wonders if this protection extended to the slaves that made up the Arabian coffles. Well. His “Lord, I’m worried, stays worried all the time” is more of an exclamation of sadness tinged with anger; than to do with religion. (102), The last line could be translated as: compared to the all-powerful and all-sexual Lilith, Johnson is saying his own earthly lover isn’t even in the frame. After addressing the ‘Christians’ to ensure they catch the train taking the right-hand track, Joe and Emma offer a last chance to the ‘sinners’. Born in Frayser, Tennessee, in Shelby County, on 26th. It's that i'm a slave to the blues: even 'bout that man of mine Blues do tell me: do i have to die a slave Do you hear me screaming: you're going to take me to my grave If i could break these chains: and let my worried heart go free Well it's too late now: the blues have made a slave of … Watch the video for Slave To The Blues from Ma Rainey's Ma Rainey Vol. Also famous for having “run with” Robert Johnson in the mid-1930s (129) – especially in East Texas – Johnny Shines was unusual within the genre insofar as he took a great interest in his own historical and traditional roots. But it was the Arabs who were among the first to make that trade a more viable proposition. Footnote 4: This title in B. The dark shadow of slavery times and the coffles now  seems to invade Robert Johnson’s famous Crossroad Blues. Mother has often told me of the heart-breaking scene. Muskoga! I’se knowed my birthday since I’se a shirttail boy, but can’t figure in my head.” (63)   This would make Willis Winn 115 at the interview. Charley Patton’s haunting slide guitar ‘talks’ and ‘prays’. The Coffle Song is essentially a secular one with only the ‘I’ll pray for you when I rest’ line and the last verse having any religious reference. He included the phrase: When a ‘re-discovered bluesman (Son House?) Learn more about blues, including notable musicians. None of these five spirits could be described as the ‘Black Camel of Death’! This might explain the side recorded by Rev. In a contrasting atmosphere to Rev. You As well as a title by Mississippi John Hurt which included “the hooking bull crossing” phrase in the 1960s . This article was transcribed from the original text and re-formatted for the earlyblues.com website by Alan White, March 2010, Copyright © 2014-2021 | Welcome to Earlyblues.org | Designed and managed by Alan White, Slave To The Blues (coffles and the auction block – slave roots of the blues). & G.R.) All marched in “solemn sadness”, the minister wrote.” (6)  Sadly, Dickey did not refer to the  sounds emanating from the two fiddlers at the head of this coffle who would presumably not have been playing ‘jolly’ music – unless forced to by the slave traders – but tunes of lowdown gut-busting misery. Footnote 21: See Railroadin’ Some (Ibid. The Rise And Fall Of The Choctaw Republic, The Pageant of America Vol. The collective undertaking for this is: Rex Haymes, Alan White, Robin Andrews, Dai Thomas, and Max Haymes. The lyrics get even more lachrymose (a-typical in early blues) so it is not surprising to discover that along with another title by the Unique Quartette from the same 1893 session, Maid Of The Mill, both were “standard white parlor songs” (78). These sides were done at the same session as the one by “Will Day”. (see p.7)  Rev. Raise ‘er to my hand. [sic]  But the Arab dealer was no respector of persons, and when opportunity offered he did not hesitate to sell to the white slaver his allies of a different stock, along with the negroes [sic] whom he had bought from them.”. PART 4 – The Auction Block Blues-Roots of Do Lord Remember Me. Me and the Devil was walkin’ side by side; fare ye well, my bonny, etc. I've got to admit girl, your the shit girl And I am digging you like a … Comin’ through Rockwall. Aah! (121). An’ a lot of time they wouldn’t buy them. Beat the train to the crossin’ an’ burn the trestle down. A 1900  map shows it as ‘McAlester’. Oh! Milton knew how to hold the attention of  his black  congregation. 5). But if Rev. Raise ‘er to my hand. While fellow Texan Henry Thomas used the song’s refrain when he cut Charmin’ Betsy [Vocalion 1468] also in 1929. The Delta Blues king being notorious for his mis-spoken asides. (30). Since they stunk worse than mules and were even more stubborn, after two frustrating years of futiley trying to increase the herd and break them in to hauling four-ton wagon loads, the two dozen or more still surviving single humpers were turned loose in Arizona. III (Adventures, (the complete a-z for the entire magical world), Encyclopaedia Of Spirits (the ultimate guide to, Soul By Soul (Life Inside The Antebellum Slave Market), Mother of the Blues: A Study of Ma Rainey, Virginia Blues, Country, & Gospel Records, -Vol.1(From Slavery to Segregation 1760-1891), The Penguin Dictionary Of Historical Slang, From The South In The Building Of The Nation Vol.4, Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway. Robin is described in records as ‘Aethiopis’ or ‘negro’. Let’s catch it in the bend [if] we can’t catch it at the crossin’. Also check early blues.com. Johnson’s song invokes spirits who make him impotent (‘lost appetite’) and bring on the menstrual cycle in a woman (‘please don’t block my road’) – one of the female states most feared by otherwise macho men. I know ‘er by ‘er rumblin’ but she’s always draped in black. What became of them no one knows but maybe today they are providing tantalizing ‘fossils’ for archeologists.” (22)   It is more than likely that the old Kansas-Sante Fe trade route would have seen long lines of black camels and – slave coffles; although I have no direct evidence for this. Thomas notes that “one can explore how far the medieval trans-Saharan trade in black Africans, from the coast of Guinea, was managed by Arab mullah -merchants in the first centuries after the Moslem penetration of Africa, long before Prince Henry the Navigator’s ships were seen in West Africa.” (14)  Prince Henry, “brother of the King of Portugal,” was responsible for the first shipload of African slaves to Europe “on 8 August 1444,” (15)  But with “the introduction of the camel (native to Asia) in AD 300, much bigger cargoes could be carried with greater ease and efficiency than had been possible with the gangs of human bearers, and the trans-Sahara traffic greatly increased. The Central Pacific & The Southern Pacific, The Slave Community (Plantation Life In The, A History Of African Americans In North Carolina. This was “where the Texas Trail from Springfield, Missouri, to Preston and Dallas crossed the California Trail from Fort Smith to Albuquerque”. She’s a-strainin’ at every nerve. Century. The blues is the name given to a style of music created by African Americans at the end of the 19th century. Death has left its tracks dotted with graves an’ wet with tears. (Oooh!) Note: When you embed the widget in your site, it will match your site's styles (CSS). comment. Gates – who is bound to have also influenced Milton’s title, – on his Death’s Black Train Is Coming [Columbia 14146-D]  recorded in Atlanta on 24th. With one little baggage car. (134). Certainly not an event requiring unfamiliar religious help from God. Apparently not much to his liking as related in his Hard Dallas Blues [Paramount 12708]. And when we’re moldering in the clay, Milton could take his recording from a Charlie Chan book, where did Rev. By failing to-mmm-understand. Ex-slave Laura Smalley (probably born c. late 1840s) was interviewed at length in 1941 down in East Texas. (120). St. Clair wrote “many…came from Asante, marched, shackled, through the forest paths, and [got] their first sight of men with skin colour that was not black..” (58)   The governors of Cape Castle knew that “many of the people whom they bought did not originate from Asante, but came from communities conquered by, and subject to, the Asante empire, or who had been brought to Asante as slaves from further inland..” (59)   One, Governor Hippisley noted that a few of the slaves “were so pale in complexion as to be of North African or Middle Eastern appearance..” (60)   Sinclair added: “Hippisley speculated, correctly, that the interior of Africa was not a desert, as some Europeans believed, but luxuriant and well populated, and that the slaves brought to the Castle may have come from the whole of the vast area of sub-Saharan Africa, east as well as west, and even beyond..” (61)   Significantly, Sinclair notes: “It was only in the Asante invasion of 1807, during which men literate in Arabic who had seen the Mediterranean were found among the Asante army, that the British in the Castle began to understand..” (62), As has been seen the Arabic legacy of the slave coffle soon reappeared in the American colonies and later, US states. While on his initial version, (and his recording debut) Rev. The funeral train it’s a-comin’; I’ll meet you on that kingdom sh…[ore] (133), The song Do Lord Remember Me made a brief, if sometimes indirect, visit to the Blues. Good God, make me think about Itta Bena—get your shoes, boy, (57)   This runs: And Isaac went out to meditate in the field at the eventide: and he lifted up his eyes, and saw, and, behold, the camels were coming. a major coal (aka black diamonds) carrier and also referring to his listeners skin colour, gives his sermon several layers of meanings. Black Camel’s Death (Preach it good! sympathize with them. A harrowing description of a coffle is quoted in Slave Testimony. An’ uh, most times, they It would seem that on his other take of Crossroad Blues Johnson is alluding to the ’T’ variety. May, 1930 in Memphis. It ran: “Death is a black camel which kneels at every man’s gate. In collaboration with my younger brother, Rex, and blues brothers, Alan White, Robin Andrews and Dai Thomas we intend to highlight the non-religious music of the African American before 1865; and at the end of the Civil War. Yeah, wet-nurse, you know. Tone the bell. Dallas, Texas. It is far more likely that Rev. (131). Aw! They couldn’t 1967. Oh lord: this wounded heart of mine These singers are part of a small group who used the ‘crossing/trestle’ verse, or variations of same, in the pre-war era of the Blues. J.M. A close cousin to this song is one usually called Take A Stand and is represented by only two or three early recordings using the title. In the same year Blind Willie Johnson recorded his Take Your Stand (1929) the King of the Delta Blues-Charley Patton- cut a remarkable two-part gospel side Prayer of Death for Paramount Records. J.M. New York City. (70). Lotsa time son an’ daughter was sold from mother an’ PART 1 – The Coffle & the Black Camel of Death. PART 2 – The Coffle, Crossroads, and the Auction Block. Footnote 2: Probably Galveston, as by “the late [18]’60s nearly all Texas cotton moved down to Galveston by rail or wagon.” (21). An’ dey’ll grab de one goin’ to de left, an’ it’s got three prongs to it. (Footnote 2) From Independence, Missouri, the state border, the 850-mile trail was by the time of the Santa Fe railroad project a well-defined route. Although in c. November, 1926, Blind Joe Taggart laid aside his trusty guitar and along with his wife Emma recorded an impressive duet a cappella:  I Wish My Mother Was  On  That Train [Supertone S2243]. Lush production from Trevor Horn here. starts and ends within the same node. The experiment was a failure and “in 1902 was rebuilt with a new boiler of standard design.” (20). In that year the state of Oklahoma was born. The Black Diamond train “In the nineties…had run all the way to Buffalo [New York] with camelback motive power.” (37). Patton was to adapt this verse in another blues from the same session: Heart Like Railroad Steel [Paramount 12953], omitting ‘Clack’s Crossroads’. Footnote 3: Indeed, Milton was also probably aware of Rev. While back in 1938 an Estonian lady, Leonora Peets, wrote a book called Women of Marrakesh. was sold from daughter an’ son. Kwan Yin’s entry reveals all animals “are sacred…but especially horses.” (47)   A point could be stretched for the inclusion of a fifth: Sacha Huarmi. Thereby joining the ranks of piano/guitar men in the Blues such as Walter Roland, Peetie Wheatstraw, Lonnie Johnson, Clifford Gibson, Tampa Red, et al. We’re gonna speak now upon the subject – the Black Camel’s Death. They were chained six and six together. Do Lord, do now, sho’ nuff do; Hello, Greenville! As on the rivers and of course sometime later on the Southern prison farms. (2) (Ibid. 42-44.). J.M. Referring to the Protestant Reformation (c.1517)  in the Medieval Period, Paine writes: “No period in Christian history was even [sic] so beneficial to the Devil. But they still had a way of getting’ a message over to them. Time to hear the tone a bell again. If I never, never see you any (Glory!)more. that he sings ‘strange’. Oh! A. Slave to the Rhythm (Blooded) B1. Sinners and saints say goodbye as the trains reach the point where the railroad track forks in the form of a switch or point; one going left and the other going right. (31). With a deep resonance of their combined humming or ‘moaning’ shot through with some of the most intensely emotional fiddling on a record, Moanin’ And Groanin’ The Blues [Columbia 14270-D] may well be what I call an ‘oral camera’ on this horrific scene in the early 19th. When you read the words "Slave to the blues," it doesn't compare to how it sounds and feels when Ma Rainey sings this song. Mainstream Publishing. Moroccan dish) with the powdered bones of corpses! Footnote 5: The other take is the same with only slight change of some words, Footnote 7: These women used skeleton parts for spells in vodou and witchcraft. 2003. Reviews There are no reviews yet. I have only come across two references to this little-known phenomenon. I replied, “Canst not tell me something new, Satan?” (110)   Although the Devil/devil appears in many blues lyrics Satan is very nearly totally absent. Oh! The train I’m-a talkin’ about she’s-a movin’ through the land; Uh.. (112)   The story is told by one J.L. By the 1820s, the then new states of Alabama and Mississippi had joined this evil trade. 2009. Max Haymes. Dickey’s report, some 20 years later in Springfield, Missouri; is one by future  US President Abraham Lincoln. Footnote 13: Tho’ he refers to the ‘Sunset Clause’, banning blacks from the streets from sunset- sunrise in the 1930s; in the “sun goin’ down, dark gonna catch me here” verse (81) this would result in a stay at the local city jail-quite a common experience for itinerant blues singers. Ah! Addeddate 2009-08-26 15:47:53 Boxid OL100020310 Identifier MaRainey-SlaveToTheBlues Source 78 . Robert M.W. I was standin’ at the crossroad, biddin’ my rider goodbye. Possibly going back to the 17th. In this article I intend to focus on two of the foremost phenomena: the slave coffle and the auction block. Gates gives a warning to all sinners; especially his own church members. From the New Testament (Matthew 23:24). Another version of this number, at a similar tempo, was made some two months later by the Golden Eagle Gospel Singers with unidentified guitar, fiddle, and tambourine driven along by Josephine Tillman’s rich vocals. She’d-a old mother, time have come. Gon’ get me a fairy; To the British slave trader on the West Coast of Africa the black camel coffles would have been a very familiar sight. Listen: voices will intone the names of those destined to die during the next twelve months. He therefore “went to the ‘Cross Roads’ where he established a store and soon became the owner of a flourishing business. J.M. An’ vice-verserin’. An’ the Black Camel’s Death meets him an’ others (Pick it up! If I never, never see you any… Here’s my hand, here’s my hand, here’s my hand; (Glory!) A small iron clevis was around the left wrist of each, and this fastened to the main chain by a shorter one at a convenient distance from, the others; so that the negroes [sic] were strung together precisely like so many fish upon a trot-line. a new song. But it won’t be long till my Jesus come, Indeed, this is one of many railroad stops mentioned by Henry ‘Ragtime Texas’ Thomas in his superb Railroadin’ Some in 1929; as “South McAlester’. Tindley Bible Class Singers refer to a railroad! This features the upbeat rhythm imparted by the Delta Boys and some of the most inspired(?) An’ when you find your station, now; Footnote 4: This title in B. Modal songs in the South and proto-blues (x 2) But it’s too late now, the blues have made a slave of me. H.R Tomlin, who only made 8 sides, was a more formal preacher from an earlier time who opened his version with these words: Death is a black train which stops at every man’s door. (Footnote 21) But no blues was recorded about this important social occasion, or at least I have not come across one in over 50 years. I leave you a drop of my heart’s own blood, Also Worried All The Time by Bob Campbell could be cited. Lawdy, do remember me. “Dey go down dere to de fo’ks of de road to break up people, an’ dey go dere fo’ de ninth mawnin’ an’ de ninth mawnin’ dey go dere an’ carry a black cat. In fact commencing not long after the arrival at the James River of the first boatload of African indentured servants in 1619. ), a railroad often featured in the early blues, “was still in a fetal stage, in the area of what today would be the states of Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona and California, there were less than two people to the square mile. Just one point you must consider into the picture is the fact that European Music has been notated for several centuries while in the slave songs/spirituals/early Blues era the performance wasn't notated , there were some attempts at notating these style with CMT notation systems since the mid 19th century, but unfortunately it failed to capture the essence of that culture. ed. Bobby Grant” (76) he uses the same accompaniment-note for note- as on his own Lonesome Atlanta Blues [Paramount 12595] presumably from the same session according to matrix nos. an’ I know it. If I live, don’t get killed. Do remember me. At a point where two dirt tracks crossed provided the coffles with a location where a sale of  the human ‘freight’ could be set up via the auction block, as referred to by ex-slave Willis Winn above..  As a black woman from Sumter in South Carolina informed Hyatt in the early 1930s, this icon of the Blues graduated into roads and later even railroads. This article is part of a far larger work (‘Slave To The Blues’) which seeks to focus on the secular roots of the Blues back in slavery times in the USA. (118), Then crossing the state line from Texas into Oklahoma, Henry Thomas rode the Katy over that very same crossing in what he still called the ’Territory’, South McAlester! Containing details of ‘over a thousand spirits’ (according to a comment on the back cover) and their animals symbols/preferences/familiars, only six have connection with the ‘ship of the desert’ as the camel is sometimes called. The station/depot was named McAlester. An’ it’s one thing certain, they have stones all in my pass. Linked with Lilith, ‘Queen Of Demons’, her name is Aisha Qandisha . Blues, please tell me, do I have to die a slave? Blow the horn for the mothers, you know. pp. Another is the Greek goddess Hekate/Hecate. Blues do tell me: do i have to die a slave For a long/in-depth study of Lucille Bogan, by Max Haymes, see Alan White’s early blues.com website. But not as a harbinger of death, or Death itself. Take a stand, take a stand, take a stand; (Oh yes!) Footnote 11: Though listed in B. Assign students to read the essay in this guide "What Is the Blues?" J.M. A spiritual was sometimes used as a boat song for example. It wasn’t until the closing decades of slavery prior to the Civil War, that the ‘separation line’ between the two became more strictly observed. Century surely invoked memories of horror and death, passed on down by their forebears. Interestingly, the N.C.& St.L. Said Mr. White: Ooooh! This has been discussed at some length (Footnote 20) and so will not be pursued further here. Take a stand, take a  …, take a stand; A.W. This was true for nearly all blacks and half the whites south of the Mason/Dixon line. The Arabs were not about to relinquish such a profitable trade. It depicts her as a winged naked bird woman holding the ring and the rod of power and flanked by owls. It is quite possible that he bumped into Rev. To “strike up lively”, which means that they must begin a song. This just might be the subject of Katy Crossing Blues by Texas Alexander in 1934 at a session in Fort Worth, Texas. This involved preparing couscous (a favourite. The majority of blues musicians had descendants from Africa who were transported to America in the slave trade. The slaves, securely handcuffed, were joined together by short chains which connected to a forty-foot long chain that ran between them. Milton’s The Black Camel of Death. Origins of ‘patting juba’ in the US While’s I sing, come on an’ accept prayer, tonight. (117). Then on into St. Louis where he “changed cars” once again as he headed up to Chicago, to cut another recording session for Vocalion Records. Ex-slave Laura Smalley (probably born c. late 1840s) was interviewed at length in 1941 down in East Texas. This ‘first’ rail crossing saw the Katy cross the old Atlantic & Pacific – later the Frisco. (10)  from the 18th. Take a stand, take a stand, take a stand; (Oh yes!) I’ve been gone sixteen years. Most locomotives in the WW.I era and after, certainly in the South, were painted in utility black. Century! The next morning but one we started with this Negro trader upon that dreaded and despairing journey to the cotton fields of Georgia. In 1855, for example, Congress amazingly enough had appropriated $30,000 for an experiment to bring camels to the United States to be used for transport in the southwest. Rambling Thomas, a great rural singer who came from Logansport, Louisiana, also used this ‘crossing/trestle’ verse in a blues from 1928. (1) The ‘fog’, I would suggest was an invention of apologists for what was deemed the ‘Peculiar Institution’. By his subsequent marriage to a Chickasaw girl he became entitled to citizenship in the Choctaw Nation. Illes adds that Aisha Qandisha  is a “temperamental, volatile spirit, quick to scratch, strangle, or whip those who displease her or don’t obey her commands fast enough.” (53)   Finally, as already stated there is the telling manifestation. J.M. ‘Cos that train maybe here tonight. when they was bein’ on the block; they wuz on the block to be sold. Work is in progress on not only tracing corn shucking songs (although thought to be a major factor) but a broader spectrum including  work songs, generally. Milton: The Black Camel Of Death [Co 14501-D] at his one and only session in 1929. Another ‘non-Texan’ who used this verse was the Alabamian female rural blues singer Lucille Bogan. It’s comin’, too. She is a pre-Islamic spirit who was once among the primacy deities venerated at Mecca.” (41)  Along with Al Uzza and Menat, Allat formed “the trinity of goddesses mentioned in the Koran. (127). Larenz Tate - Brother to the Night (A Blues for Nina): Darius` Poem Lyrics. I’m gonna stand at the crossin’, to wave my last farewell. Indeed, far more plausible was a rare (in the South) modified railroad locomotive built in 1899, “constructed with an exceptionally wide firebox of the modified Wootten type”, (19) often called a ‘Camelback’ or  ‘Mother Hubbard’. Walter Johnson, again, noted that cities which had slaves in holding pens before dispensing them further south included St. Louis in Missouri. The scars of slavery, both physical and mental, ran deep and so it is not surprising that some 60 years after the end of the Civil War, they would still be felt running through the Blues. When the order was given to march, it was always on such occasions accompanied by the command, which the slaves were made to understand before they left the “pen”. (featured in blues by Charley Patton, Bessie Smith, Kokomo Arnold, Lizzie Miles, Big Bill Broonzy, amongst several others. Notes to Field Recordings Vol.11: Virginia. The Hausa language was second only to that of Swahili in the numbers of people who used it and its widespread distribution throughout the African continent. Footnote 6: This educational establishment, for African Americans, reverted back to its original title as the Morris Brown College in 1929. December, 2004.

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